Arrow notation

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Arrow notation
Growth rate	\(n \uparrow^n n\) >* all primitive-recursive functions
Notations	\(a \uparrow^b c\)
Author(s)	Donald Knuth
Year	1976

For other arrow notations, see down-arrow notation, mixed arrow notation, chained arrow notation, irrational arrow notation.

Arrow notation or up-arrow notation is a widely used notation for the hyper operators, devised by Donald Knuth in 1976 to represent large numbers. Knuth roughly introduced \(a \uparrow b\) as \(a^b\) and \(a \underbrace{\uparrow \cdots \uparrow}_{n \textrm{ times}} b\) as \(\underbrace{a \underbrace{\uparrow \cdots \uparrow}_{n-1 \textrm{ arrows}} a \cdots a \underbrace{\uparrow \cdots \uparrow}_{n-1 \textrm{ arrows}} a}_{b \textrm{ copies of } a}\), which is solved from right to left.

Definition

We explain the precise intention of the original definition by Knuth. For any positive integers \(a\), \(b\), and \(n\), \(a \uparrow^n b\) is defined by the following recursive way:

\begin{eqnarray*} a \uparrow^n b = \left\{ \begin{array}{ll} a^b & (n = 1) \\ a & (n \geq 1, b = 1) \\ a \uparrow^{n-1} (a \uparrow^n (b-1)) & (n > 1, b > 1) \end{array} \right. \end{eqnarray*}

This notation gives a total computable function \begin{eqnarray*} \uparrow \colon \mathbb{N}_{>0}^3 & \to & \mathbb{N}_{>0} \\ (a,b,n) & \mapsto & a \uparrow^n b, \end{eqnarray*} where \(\mathbb{N}_{>0}\) denotes the set of positive integers. Readers should be careful that some authors implicitly extend it so that \(a \uparrow^n 0 = 1\) holds for any positive integers \(a\) and \(n\).

It satisfies the following relations, which also characterise the notation, for any positive integers \(a\), \(b\), and \(n\):

\begin{eqnarray*} a \uparrow^1 b &=& a^b \\ a \uparrow^n 1 &=& a \\ a \uparrow^{n + 1} (b + 1) &=& a \uparrow^n (a \uparrow^{n + 1} b) \\ \end{eqnarray*}

Here, \(a \uparrow^{n} b\) is regarded as a shorthand for \(a \uparrow\uparrow\cdots\uparrow\uparrow b\) with \(n\) arrows. So, for example, we have \(a \uparrow^2 b = a \uparrow\uparrow b\). Arrow notation operators are right-associative; \(a \uparrow b \uparrow c\) always means \(a \uparrow (b \uparrow c)\).

Specifically, \(a \uparrow b\) is exponentiation, \(a \uparrow\uparrow b\) is tetration, \(a \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow b\) is pentation, and in general \(a \uparrow^n b\) is the (n+2)th hyper-operation. In ASCII, these are often written a^b, a^^b, a^^^b, ... or a**b, a***b, a****b as consistent with some programming languages which use a^b or a**b for exponentiation.

Application to googology

The function \(f(n) = n \uparrow^n n\) is a fast-growing function that eventually dominates all primitive recursive functions, and can be approximated using the fast-growing hierarchy as \(f_\omega(n)\). This is the limit of the non-extended hyper operators, and by extension, arrow notation.

Arrow notation can relate to Hyper-E notation through the following rule:

\(a \uparrow^c b = E[a]\underbrace{1\#1\#1\cdots\#b}_c\)

for positive integers a, b, c. For example,

• a↑b = E(a)b
• a↑↑b = E(a)1#b
• a↑↑↑b = E(a)1#1#b

Arrow notation has been generalized to other notations. A few notable ones are chained arrow notation, BEAF, and BAN. It has also been compared exactly with, among others, Notation Array Notation using the function (a{2, number of arrows}b).

Nathan Ho and Wojowu showed that arrow notation terminates — that is, \(a \uparrow^n b\) exists for all \(a,b,n\).^{[dead link]}

Examples

Examples of \(2 \uparrow^{n} 3\) series with colors for \(n = 1,2,3,4,5\). This picture includes the pt operator.

• \(2 \uparrow 3 = 2^3 = 8\)
• \(5 \uparrow 6 = 5^6 = 15,625\)
• \(10 \uparrow 100 = 10^{100} =\) googol
• \(3 \uparrow \uparrow 4 = 3 \uparrow 3 \uparrow 3 \uparrow 3 = 3 \uparrow 3 \uparrow 27 = 3^{7,625,597,484,987} \approx 1.2580143*10^{3638334640024}\)
• \(5 \uparrow\uparrow 3 = 5 \uparrow 5 \uparrow 5 = 5^{5^5} \approx 1.9110126*10^{2184}\)
• \(2 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 2 = 2 \uparrow\uparrow 2 = 2 \uparrow 2 = 2^2 = 4\)
• \(2 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 2 = 2 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 2 = 2 \uparrow\uparrow 2 = 2 \uparrow 2 = 2^2 = 4\)
• \(3 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 2 = 3 \uparrow\uparrow 3 = 3 \uparrow 3 \uparrow 3 = 3^{3^3} = 3^{27} = 7,625,597,484,987\)
• \(2 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3 = 2 \uparrow\uparrow 2 \uparrow\uparrow 2 = 2 \uparrow\uparrow 4 = 2 \uparrow 2 \uparrow 2 \uparrow 2 = 2 \uparrow 2 \uparrow 4 = 2 \uparrow 16 = 65,536\)
• \(3 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3 = 3 \uparrow\uparrow 3 \uparrow\uparrow 3 = 3 \uparrow\uparrow 7,625,597,484,987 = \underbrace{3 \uparrow 3 \uparrow \cdots \uparrow 3 \uparrow 3}_{7,625,597,484,987 \textrm{ times}}\) = Tritri
• \(10 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3 = 10 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 10 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 10\) = Super K
• \(a \uparrow^{n+1} 2 = a \uparrow^{n} a\)

For non-integers

Fish defined for \(x > 0, n \ge 1, n \in \mathbb{N}\),

\begin{equation} a \uparrow^n x = \begin{cases} a^x & \text{if } 0 < x \le 1 \text{ or } n=1 \\ a \uparrow^{n-1} (a \uparrow^n (x-1)) & \text{if } 1 < x, 1 < n \end{cases} \end{equation}

From this definition,

\(\begin{array}{rl} 10^{100} &= 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 2 = 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow \log_{10}(2) \\ &\approx 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 0.301 = 10 \uparrow \uparrow 2.301 \\ 10^{10^{100}} &= 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 2 \approx 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 0.301 = 10 \uparrow \uparrow 3.301 \\ 3 \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 3 &= 3 \uparrow \uparrow 7625597484987 \\ &\approx 10 \uparrow \uparrow 7625597484986.041 \\ &\approx 10 \uparrow \uparrow 10 \uparrow 12.88227 \\ &\approx 10 \uparrow \uparrow 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 10 \uparrow 0.04532 \\ &= 10 \uparrow \uparrow 10 \uparrow \uparrow 2.04532 \\ &\approx 10 \uparrow \uparrow 10 \uparrow \uparrow 10 \uparrow \uparrow 0.31076 \\ &= 10 \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 2.31076 \\ \end{array}\)

Fish used this method to approximate the fast-growing hierarchy precisely, with a program published at the site. Here are some examples.

• \(f_3(10) \approx 10 \uparrow \uparrow 10.542750880844022\)
• \(f_3(100) \approx 10 \uparrow \uparrow 101.17592742879957\)
• \(f_4(5) \approx 10 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 5.718488944632594\)
• \(f_4(10) \approx 10 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 11.00425948512775\)
• \(f_4(100) \approx 10 \uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 101.11465471078382\)
• \(f_5(100) \approx 10 \uparrow^4 101.04713294995302\)
• \(f_{10}(10) \approx 10 \uparrow^9 11.000050551171205\)
• \(f_{100}(100) \approx 10 \uparrow^{99} 101\)

Turing machine code

Input form: to represent \(a \uparrow^{c} b\), place a 1's, then c+2 ^'s, then b 1's. For example, 111^^^^^111 computes tritri.

Turing machine code

0 * * r 0
0 _ _ l 1
1 1 _ l 2
2 ^ _ l 3
2 1 1 l 4
3 ^ _ l 3
3 1 _ l 2
4 1 1 l 4
4 ^ 1 l 4'
4 _ 1 l halt
4' ^ ^ l 5
4' 1 1 r 0
5 ^ ^ l 5
5 1 1 r 6
6 ^ x r 7
6 1 y r 9
6 | ^ l 12
7 * * r 7
7 _ | r 8
7 | | r 8
8 * * r 8
8 _ ^ l 11
9 * * r 9
9 | | r 10
10 * * r 10
10 _ 1 l 11
11 * * l 11
11 x ^ r 6
11 y 1 r 6
12 * * l 12
12 ^ ^ l 12'
12' ^ ^ l 12'
12' * * l 13
12' 1 x r 14
13 * * l 13
13 ^ ^ r 20
13 _ _ r 20
13 1 x r 14
14 * * r 14
14 ^ ^ r 15
15 ^ ^ r 15
15 x x r 16
15 1 x l 12
16 x x r 16
16 1 x l 12
16 ^ x r 17
17 ^ ^ r 17
17 1 ^ r 18
18 ^ 1 r 17
18 1 1 r 18
18 _ 1 l 19
19 * * l 19
19 x x l 12
20 x 1 r 20
20 ^ ^ r 21
21 ^ ^ r 21
21 x x r 22
22 x x r 22
22 1 _ r 23
22 ^ ^ l 30
23 1 _ r 23
23 ^ ^ l 24
24 _ ^ r 25
25 ^ ^ r 25
25 1 1 l 26
26 ^ 1 r 27
27 1 1 r 27
27 _ _ l 28
28 1 _ l 29
29 * * l 29
29 _ ^ r 25
29 x 1 l 30
30 x 1 l 30
30 ^ ^ r 31
31 * * r 31
31 _ _ l 32
32 1 _ l 1

See also

• Down-arrow notation
• Mixed arrow notation
• Chained arrow notation
• Irrational arrow notation
• Maksudov's transfinite arrow notation
• Ackermann number, a special case.
• Bentley's Number
• Hyper operator
• Knuth Arrow Theorem
• Katakana!'s extended arrow notation

Sources

Hyper operators

Main article: hyper operator

Hyper-operators: successor · addition · multiplication · exponentiation · tetration · pentation · hexation · heptation · octation · enneation · decation (un/doe/tre) · vigintation (doe) · trigintation · centation (tri) · docentation · myriation · circulation
Bowers' extensions: expansion · multiexpansion · powerexpansion · expandotetration · explosion (multi/power/tetra) · detonation · pentonation
Saibian's extensions: hexonation · heptonation · octonation · ennonation · deconation
Tiaokhiao's extensions: megotion (multi/power/tetra) · megoexpansion (multi/power/tetra) · megoexplosion · megodetonation · gigotion (expand/explod/deto) · terotion · more...